A common goal of professional development (PD) is to improve teachers\u2019 skills, understanding, and pedagogical practices in order to impact student learning (Wallace, 2009; Yoon, Duncan, Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley, 2007). However, no simple input-output model exists; there are many mediating factors between what teachers experience during PD and how it is translated into student learning experiences in the classroom (Desimone, 2009; Guskey, 2002; Whitworth & Chiu, 2015).<\/p>\n
Often, evaluation efforts of technology education PD document implementation of pedagogical practices during the life of the program, but little is known about whether these practices persist once the programmatic supports end (Baker et al., 2015; Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007). Recently, a proposed geospatial technology (GST) and learning research agenda suggested the identification of the technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge required for teachers to implement and use GST as a priority for the field moving forward (Baker et al., 2015).<\/p>\n
The current study begins to address this priority. The purpose of this research was to determine what pedagogy persisted following a PD institute with project-based instruction integrating GST and what factors promoted or hindered sustained implementation of these practices.<\/p>\n
Project based instruction (PBI) is a teaching method designed to promote students\u2019 development of 21st<\/sup>-century competencies (critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity; Partnership for 21st<\/sup> Century Learning, 2015) through a collaborative, structured inquiry of an engaging and complex question, problem, or challenge (Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx, & Soloway, 1994; Larmer, Ross, & Mergendoller, 2009). PBI also requires engagement in the practices of science, which translates into a deeper learning experience (National Research Council [NRC], 2012). Many GST-integrated PD programs have promoted the use of PBI integrated with GST (e.g., Bodzin, Anastsio, & Kulo, 2014; Kolvoord, Charles, & Purcell, 2014).<\/p>\n GST is a powerful tool to support spatial thinking, scientific research, and real-world problem solving (NRC, 2006; Sinton & Lund, 2007). Teachers who utilize GST within student-centered practices in their classrooms provide opportunities for students to engage in data collection, analysis, and argumentation based on evidence (MaKinster & Trautmann, 2014).<\/p>\n PD is a critical component in the overall success of teachers\u2019 development of practices that will lead to effective implementation of science and technology in an authentic environment. Developing science content understanding, the intellectual capabilities of their students, and specialized pedagogical knowledge requires specialized PD focusing on the core ideas in the discipline and modeling of how teachers should present the material to their students (NRC, 2007).<\/p>\n Koehler and Mishra (2005) stressed the need for authentic, project-based PD activities to help teachers develop this knowledge of how to teach content with technology effectively. To teach effectively with GST, teachers must build their knowledge, skills, and practices before they can implement lessons with students and realize instructional changes that ultimately lead to student learning gains (Desimone, 2009; Guskey, 2000). In addition, PD must help teachers integrate knowledge of GST into their existing schema (Coulter, 2014; Kolvoord et al., 2014).<\/p>\n As technology has been infused into most schools, and with greater accessibility of GST tools such as ArcGIS online and Google Earth, teachers can now focus on more sophisticated, student-centered technologies. In order to provide teachers with effective PD around GST and PBI, facilitators should immerse teachers in a real-life problem which involves the examination of spatial data (Borko, 2004; Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry, & Hewson, 2003). As teachers grapple with spatial data to resolve a problem, they are able to experience many of the same issues and struggles students encounter.<\/p>\n By becoming a learner of the content via immersion in inquiry, teachers broaden their own understanding and knowledge of the content they are addressing with their students (McAuliffe & Lockwood, 2014; Moore, Haviland, Whitmer, & Brady, 2014). Experiences should focus on teaching with GST and on learning more advanced tools as they become necessary for the exploration at hand (Barnett et al., 2014; McClurg & Buss, 2007).<\/p>\n Providing lessons and datasets that can be used immediately in classrooms supports implementation, but it is important to allow for some adaptation of the teaching materials to meet teachers\u2019 needs (Kolvoord et al., 2014; Moore et al., 2014; Stylinkski & Doty, 2014). It is also imperative that teachers understand the theory behind the lesson design, so when changes are made, critical components are maintained (Singer, Marx, & Krajcik, 2000).<\/p>\n When teachers begin implementing GST-integrated PBI lessons they face barriers, such as finding time to implement projects, pressures of high-stakes testing, technology access, and computer glitches (Baker & Kerski, 2014; Barnett et al., 2014). Kerski (2003) said that teachers who expressed an interest in teaching with GST did not actually use it until 1 to 3 years after they received the software. Teachers require adequate support, not only in the form of technology infrastructure, administrative permission, and time to allow students to engage in authentic inquiries, but also from a community of practice and educational mentors (Blank, Crews, & Knuth, 2014; Rubino-Hare et al., 2013; McClurg & Buss, 2007).<\/p>\n Long-term PD allowing time for practice, reflection, and discussion with others increases teacher implementation (Baker & Kerski, 2014; Desimone, 2009; Loucks-Horsley et al., 2003). When teachers see the engagement and learning gains from their students, they receive positive reinforcement and gain confidence to implement further (Guskey, 2002; Yarnall, Vahey, & Swan, 2014). Teachers who are comfortable with student-centered approaches such as PBI and those who are willing to learn alongside their students seem to be drawn to GST as a teaching tool and have had success in implementing (Baker & Kerski, 2014; Baylor & Ritchie, 2002; Coulter, 2014).<\/p>\n Charles and Kolvoord (2003) described four stages through which teachers progress as they begin to teach with GST: entry, adopt, adapt, and innovate. Kolvoord et al. (2014) presented illustrative cases for the stages. During the entry<\/em> stage, teachers are able to use GST within PD. The next stage sees teachers adopt<\/em> and teach lessons that use GST to teach content as written, without modification. Teachers who modify lessons to meet instructional objectives and student needs are in the adapt<\/em> stage.\u00a0 When teachers begin developing their own original activities, they have reached the innovate<\/em> stage. The ultimate goal of GST PD should be to move teachers along this continuum.<\/p>\n The Power of Data projects sought to increase science, technology, and 21st<\/sup>-century skills through immersive PD experiences with PBI, by requiring teachers to propose solutions to authentic problems through spatial data collection and analysis utilizing GST (Rubino-Hare et al., 2013). Following the PD, teachers were expected to implement similar GST-integrated PBI units in their classrooms. The PD team included geology faculty members, science teacher professional developers, GST experts, and science education researchers.<\/p>\n PD institutes focused on teaching Earth science with GST. The premise for the institutes was that modeling and practicing research-based pedagogical methods through an immersion program focusing on real-life problems would improve participant science instruction (Loucks-Horsley et al., 2003; Parker, Carlson, & Na\u2019im, 2007). The expectation was that instructional modeling would elicit a deeper level of understanding of how to integrate GST into content in a PBI context.<\/p>\n Teacher teams who demonstrated the ability to implement PBI and integrate technology in their classrooms were recruited to increase the likelihood of success during implementation (as in Blank et al., 2014; Coulter, 2014; Kerski, 2003). During the PD institutes, spatial analysis with the goal of answering a question and presentation of projects using spatial data as evidence to communicate claims was emphasized (as recommended by Bodzin, Anastasio, & Kulo, 2014; Coulter, 2014; Zalles & Pallant, 2014).<\/p>\n Teachers experienced an Earth science unit utilizing commercially available GST lessons (as in Johnson & Schmidts, 2005; Palmer, Palmer, & Malone, 2008; Palmer, Palmer, Malone, & Voigt, 2008) organized into a PBI unit designed to build conceptual understanding (as recommended in Larmer et al., 2009; Schwartz et al., 1999). Teachers were then asked to implement the lesson with students, encouraging modifications for local relevancy (as in Coulter, 2014; Kolvoord, et al., 2014; Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, 2007; Stylinski & Doty, 2014). The premise was that implementing the lessons with students would enable teachers to see the benefits for\u00a0student learning and encourage continued use (Baker & Kerski, 2014; Guskey, 2002; McAuliffe & Lockwood, 2014; Trautmann & MaKinster, 2014; Yarnall et al., 2014).<\/p>\n Although the PD content was similar, two models of PD were enacted, one that occurred over an intensive, 2-week summer institute and one that was implemented on weekends throughout the academic year (Claesgens et al., 2013; Rubino-Hare et al., 2013). After initial PD, both groups were invited to participate in an advanced 1-week summer institute to learn more about the theories behind the lesson design and to develop their own PBI units.<\/p>\n Because technology was added to the already high demands of new student-centered and PBI pedagogies, barriers to implementation were anticipated and addressed in the design of the PD. These interventions included developing teachers\u2019 content, pedagogical, and technical knowledge, requiring support from administrators and information technology (IT) specialists to ensure technology access, and providing classroom resources, including software, books, and data collection devices (as recommended by Kerski, 2003; Mumtaz, 2000; Tamim et al., 2011).<\/p>\n In previous studies of the Power of Data projects, teacher skills, knowledge, school support, and student learning were measured pre and post participation in order to determine overall effectiveness of the PD and the impact of the PD format on student learning (Claesgens et al., 2013; Rubino-Hare et al., 2013). Results indicated that when there was a high level of implementation of PBI integrating GST, teachers and their students improved their performance on a number of factors regardless of the PD format.<\/p>\n A common assumption is that in order for student learning gains to occur following teachers\u2019 participation in PD, changes to pedagogical practices must persist beyond the PD (Desimone, 2009; Guskey, 2002). Yet, ability to sustain practices in teacher participants is a challenge for high-quality PD programs (Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007).<\/p>\n Many variables come into play that affect implementation, sustainability, and ultimately, student learning (Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007; Whitworth & Chiu, 2015). Lawless and Pellegrino urged for these variables to be systematically investigated and the need identified to determine if pedagogical change persisted after PD.\u00a0 Furthermore, identification of the support structures needed to maintain long-term pedagogical change was suggested (Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007).<\/p>\n The challenge is to determine what critical factors in high-quality PD programs support persistence of pedagogical practices. Therefore, based on findings from the previous study (Claesgens et al., 2013), the research questions guiding the current study were as follows:<\/p>\n The study presented here followed teachers 1 to 2 years post-PD to construct\u00a0a more complete picture of the aspects that affected the path from professional learning experiences to the classroom.<\/p>\n This study employed a qualitative case study approach (Yin, 2014) to describe the experiences and perceptions of teachers who continued to implement their learning in the first and second years after PD ended.\u00a0 When a lack of in-depth understandings of a phenomenon exists, case study designs are appropriate (Creswell, 2009).\u00a0 The unit of analysis for the study was the teacher within the classroom.\u00a0 A variety of data, including artifacts, classroom observations, interviews, and survey results, were collected.<\/p>\n The Power of Data PD was offered in two formats: one through an intensive 2-week summer institute and the other via monthly or bimonthly meetings throughout the academic year. Both formats immersed teachers as learners in a GST-integrated collaborative PBI unit, with the goal of responding to a driving question related to an Earth science concept (weather and climate and mass wasting, respectively).<\/p>\n Global\/regional investigations and inquiry-based science labs were followed by an application of the science concept in a more local context to propose mitigation solutions. For example, teachers analyzed world and regional data to understand the differences between weather and climate (e.g., Power of Data Unit on Weather and Climate; see Appendix A<\/a>). Armed with a greater conceptual understanding of how climate change can result in extreme weather and how extreme weather might affect the Earth system, they studied a local watershed and stream system (e.g., Power of Data Unit on Climate Change Site Mitigation; see Appendix B<\/a>). The final products presented were short- and long-term recommendations to a fictional community planning commission for site modification along the stream system.<\/p>\n Teachers were encouraged to replicate this process in their classrooms. They received lessons and datasets that could be implemented immediately as written or adapted as necessary. They were then encouraged to develop and teach an authentic PBI lesson for their context that required students to collect and analyze local data, integrate non-GST hands-on science investigations, and present solutions. During the PD, participants spent time planning lessons and future implementation. As they taught the lessons they received peer feedback through both face-to-face and online discussions to encourage a professional learning community.<\/p>\n Initial analysis of data from classroom observations, teachers\u2019 self-reports, and students\u2019 work from lessons indicated three levels of initial implementation following PD: high implementers, mechanical implementers, and nonimplementers (Rubino-Hare, et al., 2013). High implementers were those who used GST, assigned students authentic projects that emphasized claims and evidence, and often required students to present project findings to stakeholders. In comparison to the high implementers, mechanical implementers were more comfortable implementing step-by-step lessons from a GST text. Lessons and student assignments tightly followed the curriculum materials presented in the PD, though occasionally teachers adapted materials and students collected data in the field. The third group, non-implementers, did not implement GST within lessons, and students did not use the software in any capacity.<\/p>\n Many of the teachers participated in an advanced 1-week summer institute to learn more about the theories behind the lesson design, learn and practice targeted GST skills, and develop and prepare data and base maps for their own GST-integrated PBI units (e.g., Advanced Institute Unit on Grand Canyon Ecology and Advanced Institute Unit on Local Water Resource Analysis; see Appendixes C and D<\/a>). During the advanced institute, teachers received individualized support from the pedagogical, technical, and subject matter experts.<\/p>\n One year after completing the final PD project, all former Power of Data participants who were still teaching (n<\/em> = 60) were contacted and asked to complete an online survey to identify what aspects of the PD they were still implementing in their classrooms. A total of 47 participants completed this follow-up survey, representing a total response rate of 78%. Ten of the teachers who completed this survey (21% of survey respondents) were purposefully selected for this study based on two criteria: level of initial implementation and continued use of GST in the classroom.\u00a0 The 10\u00a0teachers selected for this study were previously identified as mechanical or high implementers during the initial PD and reported on the survey that they were continuing to teach with GST. These criteria for selection were used in order to determine if high levels of pedagogical practices continued 1 to 2 years following the PD experience. Descriptive characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1.<\/p>\n Table 1<\/strong>Professional Development for Geospatial Technologies<\/h2>\n
Implementation of Geospatial Technologies in the Classroom<\/h2>\n
The Power of Data Projects<\/h2>\n
Purpose<\/h2>\n
\n
Methods<\/h2>\n
Context<\/h3>\n
Participants<\/h3>\n
\nDescription of Participants, n<\/em> = 10<\/p>\n